The TAPS-3 norms are nationally stratified to match as closely as possible the demographics shown in the latest U.S. Census with regard to gender, ethnicity, residence, geographic location, and parent educational level. Norms are based on data from over 2,000 students. Individual subtests are reported as scaled scores, while cluster scores (Phonological Skills, Memory, and Cohesion) and the overall score are reported as standard scores. Percentile ranks and age equivalents are also provided.